Females' increased participation in the workforce in the past century was the most significant change in the US labor market (Goldin, 2006). An often cited, but understudied, reason for females' increased LFP was the elimination of the marriage bar, a policy prohibiting married women from working. We gathered new data from 1900–1940 to document the prevalence of the marriage bar in teaching across US cities. Using the 1880–1940 Census and a difference-in-differences design, we show that marriage bars decreased the share of married female teachers by 2.3 percentage points (15%). This decrease was offset by an increase in single female teachers. We also find suggestive evidence that marriage bars increased retention among single teachers and possibly delayed or deterred marriage, particularly for older women and those exposed to the policy longer. These findings highlight the role of discriminatory employment policies in affecting work forces and workers' family decisions.

Using data on the NBER working paper series, we show that the dissemination of economics research suffers from a congestion problem: An increase in the number of weekly released working papers on average reduces downloads, abstract views, and media attention for each paper. Subsequent publishing and citation outcomes are harmed as well. Papers written by prominent authors are not immune to this congestion effect. Finally, suggestive evidence on viewership and downloads implies that working papers substitute for the dissemination function of publication. Our results highlight how readers face time and cognitive constraints, with increased congestion in working papers leading to real impacts on how research is consumed.